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Today we will be studying about Human physiology. In Human physiology, we will cover following topics namely Breathing & Respiration, Excretory System, Movement & Locomotion, Neural System, Neurons, Endocrine Glands, Hormones.

Human physiology is a branch of natural science that deals with the functioning of the human body. Physiology is the study of how living organisms function. Thus, human physiology deals specifically with the physiological attributes of the human body at various levels of organization, i.e. from cellular to tissue and ultimately, physiology at the biological system level.

<h2 id="content-id-1841-0">Breathing & Respiration</h2>

The structure of the respiratory system is uniquely suited to its primary function, i.e. the transport of gases in and out of the body. Pharynx Larynx Traches Bronch Lungs Bronchioles Nasal cavity Diaphragm Human respiratory system Oral cavity Vocal Cord Diaphram Right bronchus Left bronchus Lungs Upper Respiratory Tract Lower Respiratory Tract

<h2 id="content-id-1841-1">Lungs</h2>

A pair of lungs are present in the thoracic-cavity. Lungs are covered by a double-membrane which are called the Pleural membranes. In between both the membranes a very narrow cait called Pleural-cavity is present. In this cavity, a small amount of pleural fluid is present.

Mechanism of breathing

<ol>
	<li>Normal breathing is termed as Apnoea. Breathing involves two stages Inspiration during which atmospheric air is down in and Expiration by which the alveolar air is released out.</li>
	<li>Inspiration can occur if the pressure within the lungs (intra pulmonary pressure) is less than the atmospheric pure. If there is a negative pressure in the lungs with respect to atmospheric pressure, Expiration takes place if the pressure within the lungs is higher than the atmospheric pressure.</li>
	<li>The diaphragm and a specialized set of muscles-federal and internal intercostals between the nba, help in generation of such gradients.</li>
	<li>Inspiration is initiated by the contraction of diaphragm which increases the volume of thoracic chamber in the antero posterior and the contraction of external intercostal muscles lifts up the ribs and the sternum causing an increases in the volume of the thoracic chamber in the dorso-ventral axis.</li>
	<li>The overall increase in the thoracic volume causes a similar increase in pulmonary volume.</li>
	<li>An increase in pulmonary volume decreases the intra pulmonary pressure which forces the air from outside to move into the lungs i.e. inspiration.</li>
	<li>Relocation of the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles returns the diaphragm and sternum to their volume and thereby the pulmonary volume.</li>
	<li>This leads to an increase in intrapulmonary pressure to slightly above the atmospheric pressure causing the expulsion of air from the lungs i.e. expiration.</li>
	<li>We have the ability to increase the strength of inspiration and expiration with the help of additional muscles in the abdomen.</li>
	<li>On an average a healthy human breathes 12-16 times/ minute.</li>
</ol>

Nervous control:

Human beings have a significant ability to maintain and moderate this respiratory rhythm to suit the demands of the body tissues. This is done by the neural system. A specialized center present in the medulla region of the brain called respiratory rhythm center

<h2 id="content-id-1841-2">Excretory system</h2>

Excretory organs are also termed as organs of homeostasis. The main excretory organ in humans is the kidney. Human excretory system consists of:- two kidneys & their blood supplies.

<ol>
	<li>a pair of ureters</li>
	<li>urinary bladder & urethra. </li>
</ol>

<h2 id="content-id-1841-3">Movement & Locomotion</h2>

The act of changing place or position by the entire body or by one or more of its parts is called movement. Study of movement is called Kinesiology. In multicellular animals movements are the result of a special land of tissue called muscular tissue. Study of muscles known as Myology Sarcology.

Voluntary Muscle:

Skeletal muscles constitute around 40% to 50% of adult body mass in an average healthy person. They are related to the skeletal system. So also called skeletal muscles. Transverse lines are found at regular intervals, hence these muscles are also called as striped or striated muscles. Their contractions are controlled by will power of animal so also called voluntary muscles

<ul>
	<li>Tendon-The muscle fibers attached to a tough cord of connective tissue called Tendon & Tendon are further attached with a bone.</li>
	<li>Epimysium-Muscle is also covered by a layer of connective tissue which is called an Epimysium Perimysium.</li>
	<li>Fasciculi - Many muscle fibers are combined to form a group which is called fasciculi.</li>
	<li>Endomysium-Muscle fiber is covered by a layer of connective tissue which is called Endomysium.</li>
</ul>

Neural Control and Coordination:

The Central Nervous System (CNS) can be linked to a computer processor that is the command center for most of the functions of the body. Nucleus Dendrites Nissl’s granules Cell body Schwan cell Myelin sheath Synaptic knob Axon terminal Node of Axon Ranvier The peripheral nervous system is a set of cables that transfer critical data from the CNS to the body and then feedback information from body to CNS.

Function: Control and coordination of various activities of the organs of the animals.

Coordination is the process through which two or more organs interact and complement the functions of one another.

Origin of nervous system- Ectodermal.

In our body the neural system and the endocrine system jointly coordinate and integrate all the activities of the organ so that they function in a synchronized fashion.

<h2 id="content-id-1841-4">Endocrine system</h2>

Coordination in the body of almost all the higher vertebrates is controlled by two systems: nervous system and endocrine system. Nervous system and endocrine system are called integrative systems of the body.

Mechanism of Hormone Action:

<ul>
	<li>Hormones produce their effects on target tissues by binding to specific proteins called hormone receptors located in the target tissues only.</li>
	<li>Binding of a hormone to its receptor leads to the formation of a hormone-receptor complex. Each receptor is specific to one hormone only and hence exceptions are specific.</li>
	<li>Hormone-Receptor complex formation leads to certain biochemical changes in the target tissue.</li>
</ul>

Hormones are of two types:

<ol>
	<li>Water soluble hormone- Water soluble hormones interact with a surface receptor, normally a glycoprotein and initiate chain events within it. These hormones interact with membrane bound receptors and generate a second messenger (e.g. cyclic AMP IP3 ,Ca++ etc.) which in turn regulate cellular metabolism.</li>
	<li>Lipid soluble hormone- Lipid soluble hormones interact with intracellular receptors (eg, steroid, hormones, iodothyronines etc.) forming a complex that enters the nucleus and binds to specific regulatory sites on chromosomes.</li>
</ol>

Endocrine Glands:

An endocrine gland is a glandular organ that produces and secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream. These hormones regulate various physiological processes, such as growth and development, metabolism, reproduction, and response to stress. Examples of endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, and gonads (ovaries and testes). The hormones secreted by these glands play critical roles in maintaining homeostasis and coordinating the functions of different organs and tissues in the body.

<h2 id="content-id-1841-5">Pancreas</h2>

<ul>
	<li>Origin: Endodermal</li>
	<li>Position: present at loop of duodenum.</li>
	<li>Nature: heterocrine</li>
</ul>

Two types of cells mainly present:

Alpha cells:

<ul>
	<li>Secrets → glucagon</li>
	<li>Chemical nature → peptide Target organ → Hepatocyte</li>
</ul>

Function antagonistically to insulin.

Beta cells:

<ul>
	<li>Secrets → insulin Chemical nature → protein</li>
</ul>

Human physiology deals with all the functions that a body performs for living. Go through this blog and learn well.

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